What does the urine analysis table indicate? Urinalysis is normal, interpretation of general analysis. Acute renal failure
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When undergoing a medical examination or the occurrence of any disease, the doctor directs the patient to undergo a general urine test. This is necessary to establish an accurate diagnosis or early detection of various pathologies. Indeed, despite the fact that urine is produced by the kidneys, it is an indicator of diseases of all organs and systems. And the correct interpretation of the analysis in adults allows us to identify even minor failures, not to mention the most serious diseases.
What should normal urine look like?
When examining urine, your doctor may use a variety of test strips.During a general urine test, a laboratory technician examines the liquid visually, uses various test strips, and carefully examines it under a microscope. After all, the following characteristics have diagnostic significance:
- color;
- transparency;
- reaction;
- smell;
- relative density (specific gravity);
- the presence of salts, glucose, protein, etc.
Normal urine is straw-yellow and transparent. It does not have a pronounced unpleasant odor, but if it stands, it acquires an ammonia odor (it is formed as a result of alkaline fermentation).
The relative density depends on the amount of liquid consumed and the quality of food, but normally in an adult it is 1010–1030.
The urine reaction is neutral or slightly acidic. This setting is power dependent. When eating a large amount of meat products, urine becomes alkaline, but plant foods increase its acidity.
Be sure to study whether there are substances in the urine that normally should not be there (glucose, etc.)
Deviation of each of these parameters from the norm signals various pathologies. But it’s not enough just to know what normal urine should be. For accurate diagnosis, it is necessary to correctly decipher what the obtained indicators indicate.
Deciphering the physical parameters of urine
The color depends on the relative density: the higher it is, the more intense the yellow color the urine will have. This parameter is influenced by the presence of red blood cells, pus, bacteria, and bile pigments.
Changes in the color of urine indicate various diseases:
- Dark yellow. It happens with severe dehydration (vomiting), accompanied by congestion in the kidneys and edema.
- Pale yellow color is characteristic of and.
- Urine acquires a greenish-yellow, brown tint due to the presence of bile pigments, with pathology of the liver and gall bladder. If the liquid is the color of beer, the doctor will suspect parenchymal jaundice, and a greenish tint indicates drug-induced jaundice.
- The red color occurs due to the presence of blood, with a kidney infarction, or renal colic. Often in women, urine acquires this color during menstruation due to mechanical entry of blood from the perineum during urination. The color of meat slop means that the patient has nephritis. Blood can get into the urine for other reasons.
- Dark, almost black urine occurs with.
Color is influenced by foods and medications:
- If your urine has acquired a purple tint, before you see a doctor, you need to remember whether you ate beets the day before.
- The pink color is due to aspirin.
- Greenish-blue – when taking methylene blue.
- Drinking a decoction on bear ears (bearberry) will give a brown tint.
Therefore, when deciphering the analysis, be sure to pay attention to other indicators.
Often the urine is clear, and cloudiness occurs if it contains salts, mucus, or epithelial cells. Normally, the appearance of a cloudy cloud is acceptable. If there is a pronounced change in transparency, the sediment must be examined; it may contain:
- blood cells;
- epithelium;
- bacteria;
- slime;
- salt.
To identify from which part of the urinary tract the cloudy sediment appears, a three-glass sample is prescribed.
Unpleasant odor of urine is an indicator of various pathological processes:
- If it smells, the metabolism is most likely disturbed, and it is advisable to further examine the pancreas.
- A putrid odor indicates gangrenous changes in the bladder or purulent-inflammatory diseases of the excretory system.
- An unpleasant odor simply occurs if the patient consumed horseradish or garlic the day before.
The relative density of urine depends on the ratio of the content of liquid, urea and sodium chloride in it. That is why it is less than normal when the filtration function of the kidneys is impaired or in renal failure. It increases due to severe dehydration, edema, or the following is found in the urine:
- glucose;
- protein;
- salt;
- increased levels of urea and creatinine.
Specific gravity is an indicator of the concentration function of the kidneys. And if it does not correspond to the norm, the doctor may recommend additional studies (Zimnitsky test, Volgart test).
Decoding of chemical indicators
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For the timely detection of various pathologies, urine is examined for the presence of elements that normally should not be in it or are contained in small quantities:
Protein is normally absent or detected in quantities less than 0.002 g/l (traces). It increases with:
- kidney diseases;
- pathologies of the urinary tract.
For diagnosis, it matters which protein was detected. For example, Bence-Jones protein appears due to Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, and β 2 -microglobulin due to damage to the renal tubules.
Glucose appears in the urine if its concentration in the blood is above 6.5 mmol/l. And this happens when:
- diabetes mellitus;
- brain tumors;
- sepsis.
Glucosuria can also occur in healthy people, but this happens due to the abuse of foods containing a lot of sugar, after the administration of adrenaline, or as a result of stress.
Ketone bodies (acetoacetic and β-hydroxybutyric acid, acetone) appear when:
- feverish conditions;
- hypothermia;
- physical activity;
- diabetes mellitus
Massive ketonuria indicates hyperglycemic coma and decompensated severe diabetes mellitus.
In healthy people, ketone bodies are detected with poor nutrition, if the ratio of fats and carbohydrates consumed is not correct.
Bile pigments (bilirubin and urobilinogen) are normally found in urine in small quantities. Bilirubin is detected when:
- obstructive jaundice;
- liver cirrhosis;
- cholestasis.
Normally, it is not detected during a general analysis. But urobilinogen is excreted from the body in the urine, and therefore traces of it are found in the liquid. This pigment is absent when the bile duct is blocked. An increase indicates:
- hemolytic jaundice;
- toxic and inflammatory liver diseases;
- extensive;
- intestinal diseases (enteritis,).
Carrying out a general analysis, the presence of red blood cells is determined. Normally there are none or they are isolated. Appear due to excessive physical activity, in women during menstruation or due to gynecological diseases. The presence of red blood cells signals:
- kidney and urinary tract diseases;
- blood clotting disorders;
- heart failure;
- intestinal tumors;
- malaria;
- smallpox;
- hemorrhagic fever;
Taking medications (sulfonamides, methenamine) leads to the appearance of red blood cells in the urine.
When deciphering the analysis, attention should be paid to other indicators. For example, if an increased number of red blood cells and red blood cell casts are detected, this indicates intrarenal hematuria. The absence of protein and casts indicates an extrarenal cause for the appearance of red blood cells.
Leukocytes are found in normal urine, but their content is no more than 3 (in men) and 6 (in women). High concentrations are a consequence of acute inflammatory processes and infectious diseases of the urinary system. A three-glass test will help determine the localization of the pathological focus. Often an increase in leukocytes is accompanied by bacteriuria. But if bacteria are not detected (clean culture), then the patient probably has tuberculosis or lupus nephritis. An increase in leukocytes, protein and casts indicates renal pathology.
White blood cells may increase due to the use of medications:
- aspirin;
- ampicillin.
And also after taking heroin.
Epithelial cells are constantly present in the urine, but in small quantities. An increase occurs when the bladder, pelvis and renal parenchyma are affected.
Casts are cellular or protein casts of the renal tubules. They come in different types and their appearance is associated with certain diseases:
- Hyaline. Characteristic of organic kidney diseases (nephritis, urolithiasis), arterial hypertension, heart failure, heavy metal poisoning, fever. In healthy people they appear due to hypothermia and physical stress.
- Grainy. They indicate damage to the kidney parenchyma, congestive kidneys, viral diseases, and lead poisoning.
- Waxy. Detected at .
- Leukocyte. Their appearance is associated with pyelonephritis and lupus nephritis.
- Erythrocyte. Indicate acute progressive glomerulonephritis, renal infarction, renal vein thrombosis, polyarthritis, severe arterial hypertension.
- Epithelial. Appear with necrosis of the kidney. After allotransplantation, their presence indicates rejection.
A small amount of mucus is normal, especially in women. But if there is a lot of it, then you should suspect:
- urethritis;
- urolithiasis.
Salts found during the study of urinary sediment indicate various diseases:
- Uric acid. Its excessive amount occurs with gout, leukemia, viral hepatitis, chronic nephritis, dehydration, and consumption of meat foods.
- Phosphates. Found after gastric lavage, overeating, in patients with cystitis.
- Oxalates. They are detected if the patient eats mainly plant foods, with diabetes mellitus, ethylene glycol poisoning, or pyelonephritis.
Salts contribute to the development of urolithiasis, so be sure to establish the cause of their occurrence and, if necessary, adjust the diet.
General urine test (normal). Interpretation of urine analysis in adults and children (table). Urinalysis indicators. The norm of protein, red blood cells, leukocytes, glucose, epithelium, bilirubin, casts and bacteria in the urine. How to collect and pass a urine test. Urinalysis according to Nechiporenko and Zimnitsky. Bacteriological culture of urine. Daily urine analysis.
General urine analysis includes organoleptic, physicochemical and biochemical studies, as well as microbiological examination and microscopic examination of urinary sediment. This study allows you to evaluate the function of the kidneys and other internal organs, as well as identify the inflammatory process in the urinary tract. Healthy people are recommended to perform this test 1-2 times a year.
What does a urine test show?
Analysis of urine gives an idea not only of the functional state of the kidneys, but also of the metabolic processes occurring in other tissues and organs and in the body as a whole. Helps clarify pathological processes and helps judge the effectiveness of treatment. For people with kidney and urinary system diseases, urine tests are prescribed multiple times to assess the condition and monitor therapy.
Urine test norms for adults and children (table)
Normal values (in field of view)
Sediment element | from 0 to 18 years | over 18 years old | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
boys | girls | men | women | ||
red blood cells | single in the preparation | 0 - 2 | |||
leukocytes | 0 - 5 | 0 - 7 | 0 - 3 | 0 - 5 | |
altered leukocytes | none | ||||
epithelial cells | flat | single in the preparation | 0 - 3 | 0 - 5 | |
transitional | 0 - 1 | ||||
renal | none | ||||
cylinders | hyaline | none | |||
grainy | |||||
waxy | |||||
epithelial | |||||
erythrocyte |
Sometimes abbreviations are present in urine test tables; here we provide a breakdown of the designations of the main indicators.
Decoding the designations of urine analysis indicators
- BLd - red blood cells
- Bil- bilirubin
- Uro - urea
- KET ketones
- PRO protein
- NIT - nitrites (in the usual meaning - bacteriuria)
- GLU - glucose
- pH - acidity
- S.G - density
- LEU - leukocytes
- UBG - urobilinogen
Interpretation of urine test results
Urine test for red blood cells (normal)
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Normally, there are no urine sediments or only single ones are found in the preparation. A general urine test in a healthy person should show no more than 2 red blood cells in the field of view of the microscope, and no more than 3 leukocytes in men and 5 in women.
An increased number of red blood cells is characteristic of many diseases: pyelonephritis, urolithiasis, glomerulonephritis, urinary tract infections, systemic lupus erythematosus or poisoning(especially poisonous mushrooms, snake venom, benzene and aniline derivatives).
Most often hematuria(the appearance of red blood cells in the urine) is associated with a pathological process of various etiologies (autoimmune, infectious, organic damage) directly in the kidneys. Hematuria varies in origin and intensity. Urine takes on the color of meat slop.
Blood in the urine is evidence of a serious kidney or bladder disease. To determine the amount of blood cells excreted in the urine, there are the Kakovsky-Addis and Nechiporenko methods.
If red blood cells are detected in the urine, even in small quantities, further observation and repeated studies are always necessary.
Urine analysis for leukocytes (normal)
Leukocyturia (more than 5 leukocytes in the field of view) can be infectious (bacterial inflammatory processes of the urinary tract) and aseptic (for glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, chronic kidney transplant rejection, chronic interstitial nephritis). Pyuria The detection of 10 or more leukocytes in the field of view in the sediment during microscopy is considered.
Active leukocytes(Sternheimer-Malbin cells) are normally absent. The detection of active leukocytes in the urine indicates an inflammatory process in the urinary system, but does not indicate its localization.
Urine analysis for epithelium (normal)
Epithelial cells are normal in healthy people in the urine sediment; single cells of squamous (urethra) and transitional epithelium (pelvis, ureter, bladder) are found in the field of view. Renal (tubules) epithelium is absent in healthy people.
Flat epithelium: in men, only single cells are normally detected, their number increases with urethritis and prostatitis. In the urine of women, squamous epithelial cells are present in greater numbers.
Transitional epithelial cells may be present in significant quantities when acute inflammatory processes in the bladder and renal pelvis, intoxication, urolithiasis and neoplasms of the urinary tract.
Renal epithelial cells appear with nephritis, intoxication, circulatory failure. The appearance of renal epithelium in very large quantities is observed when necrotic nephrosis(for example, in case of poisoning with sublimate, antifreeze, dichloroethane, etc.).
Urinalysis for casts (normal)
In addition to leukocytes and erythrocytes, the number of cylinders is also assessed. Cylindruria is one of the earliest and one of the most important signs of pathological processes in the renal parenchyma (tissue). May occur when diseases of the cardiovascular system, jaundice, acute pancreatitis, comatose states.
A general urine test in healthy adults does not reveal the presence of hyaline casts in the sediment. Their presence is a sign renal pathology, heart failure, hyperthermic conditions. Sometimes hyaline casts appear due to heavy physical exertion, high blood pressure and reception diuretics. Normally, urine sediment may contain hyaline casts (single in the specimen).
Granular, waxy, epithelial, erythrocyte, leukocyte casts and cylindroids are normally absent.
The presence of casts in the urine (cylindruria) is the first sign of a reaction from the kidneys to a general infection, intoxication, or to the presence of changes in the kidneys themselves.
Urine test for bacteria (normal)
Bacteria are normally absent or their number does not exceed 2000 cells per 1 ml. Healthy urine is sterile, the presence of bacteria is a clear sign of a urinary tract infection, e.g. urethritis, cystitis, prostatitis and etc.
Bacteriuria is not absolutely reliable evidence of an inflammatory process in the urinary system. The microbial content is of decisive importance. When examining a general urine test, only the fact of the presence of bacteriuria is stated.
Urine test for fungi (normal)
Normally, there are no fungi in the urine. Fungi are found in urine when there is a fungal infection of the urinary tract or genital organs. Often the fungus is detected in people with immunodeficiency conditions and those who have taken antibiotics for a long time.
Unorganized sediment in urine
Unorganized sediment includes salt crystals, as well as mucus and crystals of cystine, tyrosine and lecithin found in pathological urine. The precipitation of salts depends mainly on the properties of urine, in particular on its pH. This parameter has little diagnostic value. An increase in the content of inorganic salts in the urine indirectly indicates urolithiasis With stones of the appropriate composition.
Urine salt test
The presence of salts in urine is a sign urolithiasis of the kidneys. The presence of individual salt crystals may indicate dehydration, a sudden change in diet, increased physical activity, as well as gout, acute and chronic nephritis, acute renal failure.
In acidic urine there are:
- uric acid;
- urates (urate salts, which include sodium urate, calcium, potassium, magnesium);
- oxalates (calcium oxalate, calcium carbonate).
Alkaline urine contains:
- tripelphosphates (ammonium phosphate-magnesium);
- phosphates;
- ammonium urate.
Urinalysis for hormones
Hormones in urine are found in small quantities, and the content of some hormones is in some cases more informative than their determination in the blood.
Urine test for urobilins
Increased content urobilins in urine noted in liver diseases, fever, putrefactive processes in the intestines, and prolonged fasting.
Since changes in urine are very diverse, its study is of great importance in recognizing many diseases. If unusual impurities appear in your urine, you should immediately consult a doctor.
Organoleptic examination of urine
Urine color
Urine is usually clear, light yellow or straw yellow in color. The intensity of the color of urine depends on the amount of urine excreted and its specific gravity. Specific gravity depends on the presence of dense substances in it. Rich yellow urine is usually concentrated, excreted in small quantities and has a high specific gravity. Very light urine is slightly concentrated, has a low specific gravity and is excreted in large quantities.
Discoloration may be the result of a pathological process in the urinary system, the effects of dietary components, or medications taken. Thus, urine becomes red when it contains blood and after taking certain medications (amidopyrine, sulfonamides). When taking certain medications (for example, 5-nock) and vitamins, the urine becomes bright yellow.
Urine containing bile pigments is brown in color. An orange-red tint indicates bilirubinemia, typical of diseases such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, cholestasis.
A reddish tint to urine is a sign pyelonephritis, stone passage, tuberculosis or even kidney cancer. With pyelonephritis, urine becomes almost colorless, pale yellow. Black urine is a sign of alkaptonuria, and grayish-white urine indicates the presence of purulent inflammatory reactions in the body.
Urine clarity
The milky white color is due to the presence of pus. Cloudiness of urine is caused by the presence of salts, cellular elements, bacteria, and mucus in it. Cloudiness of urine can be the result of the presence of red blood cells, leukocytes, epithelium, bacteria, fat droplets, precipitation of salts, pH, mucus, urine storage temperature (low temperature promotes the precipitation of salts). Flakes and threads may indicate pyelonephritis or lower urinary tract infection.
Urine smell
Normal urine has a slight ammonia odor. During pathological processes, the smell of urine changes. During long-term storage (due to the formation of ammonia from urea), it acquires a pronounced ammonia odor.
A change in the smell of urine may indicate the presence of the following diseases:
- the smell of acetone - ketonuria;
- fecal smell - E. coli infection;
- foul odor - fistula between the urinary tract and purulent cavities and (or) intestines;
- sweaty foot odor - glutaric acidemia (type II), isovaleric acidemia;
- mouse (or musty) smell - phenylketonuria;
- the smell of maple syrup - "maple syrup disease";
- cabbage smell (hop smell) - methionine malabsorption (hop dryer disease);
- the smell of rotting fish - trimethylaminuria;
- rancid fishy smell - tyrosinemia;
- swimming pool smell - hokinsinuria;
- strong smell of ammonia - cystitis.
Foam in urine
Normally, when shaking, there is practically no foam in the urine. A large amount of persistent foam with color is characteristic of jaundice and increased protein content in the urine. Foam in the urine can also indicate severe stress, concussion, disruption of cerebral circulation,diabetes mellitus in a neglected form,heart failure and some metabolic disorders.
Physico-chemical urine analysis
Chemical composition of urine
The chemical composition of urine is very complex. Urine contains over 150 organic and inorganic components. Organic substances include urea, creatinine, uric acid, proteins, urobilin, and carbohydrates.
Chemical testing includes determination in urine of: protein, glucose, ketone bodies, etc. The determination of protein, urobilin and carbohydrates is of greatest diagnostic importance. A change in the physicochemical properties of urine indicates some disturbance in the body.
Urine volume is normal in a healthy person
The normal volume of urine is 100–300 ml and is the same for adults of both sexes. If your urine volume is lower than normal, it may be a sign of dehydration or acute renal failure. Too much urine is a reason to suspect pyelonephritis or diabetes mellitus.
The acid-base reaction of urine is normal
The urine reaction (pH) of urine in a healthy person on a mixed diet is acidic or slightly acidic.
Table: Urine acidity in children and adults is normal
The reaction of urine may vary depending on the nature of the diet. The predominance of animal proteins in the diet leads to a sharp acidification of the urine reaction; with a vegetable diet, the urine reaction is alkaline.
Specific gravity of urine (g/l) is normal
The specific gravity of a healthy person’s urine can fluctuate over a fairly wide range throughout the day, which is associated with periodic food intake and fluid loss through sweat and exhaled air.
Table: Specific gravity of urine in adults and children is normal
The specific gravity of urine depends on the amount of substances dissolved in it: urea, uric acid, creatinine, salts.
- A decrease in the specific gravity of urine (hyposthenuria) to 1005-1010 g/l indicates a decrease in the concentrating ability of the kidneys, an increase in the amount of urine excreted, and drinking plenty of fluids.
- An increase in the specific gravity of urine (hypersthenuria) of more than 1030 g/l is observed with a decrease in the amount of urine excreted, in patients with acute glomerulonephritis, systemic diseases, with cardiovascular failure, may be associated with the appearance or increase swelling, large loss of fluid (vomiting, diarrhea), toxicosis of pregnant women.
Protein in urine, normal protein in urine
Normally, there is no protein in the urine or it is contained in very small quantities. In the urine of a healthy person, the protein content does not exceed 0.002 g/l - 0.033 g/l and is not detected by qualitative samples, therefore it is considered that there is no protein in the urine.
Table: Protein in urine in children and adults is normal
Appearance protein in urine- one of the most important symptoms of kidney and urinary tract disease. The appearance of protein in the urine is called proteinuria. There are different types of proteinuria:
TO physiological proteinuria include cases of temporary appearance of protein in the urine that are not associated with diseases. Such proteinuria is possible in healthy people after eating a large amount of protein-rich food, after severe physical stress, emotional experiences, and epileptic seizures.
Functional proteinuria associated with hemodynamic stress, is possible in children against the background fever, emotional stress, congestive heart failure or arterial hypertension and also after cooling.
Pathological proteinuria divided into renal (prerenal) and extrarenal (postrenal):
- Extrarenal proteinuriacaused by an admixture of protein secreted by the urinary tract and genitals; they are observed at cystitis, pyelitis, prostatitis, urethritis, vulvovaginitis. Such proteinuria rarely exceeds 1 g/l (except for cases of severe pyuria - detection of a large number of leukocytes in the urine).
- Renal proteinuriamost often associated with acute and chronic glomerulonephritis and pyelonephritis, nephropathy in pregnant women, febrile conditions, severe chronic heart failure, renal amyloidosis, lipoid nephrosis, kidney tuberculosis, hemorrhagic fevers, hemorrhagic vasculitis, hypertension.
False-positive results for protein when using test strips can be caused by severe hematuria, increased density (more than 1.025) and pH (above 8.0) of the urine.
Glucose (sugar) in urine (normal)
Carbohydrates (glucose) in urine healthy person are contained in insignificant concentrations, their presence almost always serves as a sign diabetes mellitus Thus, urine normally contains traces of glucose not exceeding 0.02%, which, like protein, is not detected by ordinary qualitative tests.
Table: Glucose in urine in children and adults is normal
The appearance of glucose in the urine (glucosuria) can be physiological and pathological.
Physiological glycosuria observed when eating large amounts of carbohydrates (nutritional glycosuria), after emotional stress (emotional glycosuria), after taking certain medications (caffeine, glucocorticoids), in case of poisoning morphine, chloroform, phosphorus.
Pathological glycosuria may be of pancreatic origin (diabetes), thyroidogenic (hyperthyroidism), pituitary (Ishchenko-Cushing syndrome), hepatic (bronze diabetes). To correctly assess glucosuria, it is necessary to determine the amount of sugar in daily urine, which is especially important in patients with diabetes.
Ketone bodies in urine (normal)
Ketone bodies (acetone, acetoacetic acid, (B-hydroxybutyric acid)) can sometimes be detected in the urine of a healthy person with very little carbohydrate intake and large amounts of fat and protein.
Table: Ketone bodies in children and adults are normal
Ketone bodies appear in urine during fasting, alcohol intoxication, diabetes mellitus, in children with vomiting and diarrhea, neuro-arthritic diathesis, as well as in severe infectious processes accompanied by a prolonged increase in temperature.
Cylinders
Sternheimer-Malbin
(active leukocytes)
renal epithelium
waxy cylinders
epithelial casts
red blood cell casts
In addition, the sediment may contain: sperm, bacteria, yeast and other fungi.
A significant amount of desquamated squamous epithelium indicates an inflammatory process in the urinary tract. Renal epithelial cells appear only when the renal tubules are damaged.
The number of leukocytes in the sediment increases significantly in acute and chronic renal diseases, with kidney stone disease And tuberculosis.
Preparing for a urine test
The day before urine collection, you must avoid foods that can change the color and smell of urine, do not drink alcohol, take a bath or sauna, or take vitamins, dietary supplements, and diuretics (including coffee). If you are taking any medications, tell the doctor who referred you for the test. Try to avoid strenuous physical activity. For women who are menstruating, it is better to reschedule the test date. It is not recommended to take a urine test within 5-7 days after cystoscopy.
The amount of urine released during the day is called daily diuresis. Its volume should ensure the removal of toxins and salts from the body. It is 1.2-1.6 l, i.e. 50-60% of all liquid received with food and water formed during the metabolic process.
How to collect a urine test?
General urine analysis
How much urine is needed for analysis?
For a general urine test, give 100-200 ml of morning urine, which is collected in a sterile glass container or a special container for urine and sealed well.
For general urine test morning urine is used, which is collected in the bladder during the night. Before collecting urine, it is necessary to perform a thorough toilet of the external genitalia, treating the external genitalia and perineum with warm water and soap. Failure to comply with this rule may result in the detection of an increased number of red and white blood cells in the urine.
Dishes for collecting samples must be sterile, free of traces of cleaning agents and disinfectants. Nowadays, disposable containers are mainly used for these purposes.
Collect all the morning urine, the first one after waking up. To prevent bacteria from the external genitalia from getting into the sample, you must first release a small amount of urine into the toilet, and then, without stopping urination, place a container and collect 100-150 ml. The container should not touch the skin.
Urine collected for general analysis can be stored for no more than 2 hours before analysis at a temperature not higher than 5-15 o C. Urine that was stored at room temperature is not suitable for analysis. The time from urine collection to delivery to the laboratory should not exceed 1.5-2 hours.
Urinalysis in infants
To collect urine from newborns, sterile urine bags are used, which can be purchased at a pharmacy. Otherwise, the rules for children are the same as for adults.
How to collect urine from a newborn?
Urine is collected in the morning; before collecting the material, the baby must be thoroughly washed and dried with a clean, dry towel. If you don't have a urine bag, you can use a new plastic bag, partially cut it on the sides and tie it like a loincloth, so that the bag ends up in the crotch area. The collected urine is poured into a sterile container. Do not squeeze urine out of a diaper or nappy!
Urinalysis according to Nechiporenko
Collect morning urine, the first one after waking up, as follows: treat the external genitalia and perineum with warm water and soap, after which a small initial portion of urine is poured into the toilet, then the main (middle) part of the urine is collected in a container; At the end of urination, the urine is drained back into the toilet. The time from urine collection to delivery to the laboratory should not exceed 1-2 hours. Urine is collected in a sterile container.
Analysis for bacteriological culture of urine
Urine culture test collected in sterile containers in the same way as for the sample according to Nechiporenko. A two-glass urine sample is for women. Three-glass urine sample - for men.
In the morning, after waking up, treat the external genitalia and perineum with warm water and soap, then collect the urine as follows: a small initial portion of urine is collected in jar No. 1, the second (main in volume) part is collected in jar No. 2; In men, at the end of urination, the last portion is collected in jar No. 3. The time from urine collection to delivery to the laboratory should not exceed 1-2 hours.
Urine analysis according to Zimnitsky
Prepare 8 containers (jars) with a lid, on each write your last name, the date the analysis was submitted to the laboratory and a serial number from 1 to 8. Collect urine during the day: from 6:00 to 9:00 - in the first jar, after 9:00 until 12:00 - second, etc. If there is no urge to urinate at a given time interval, the corresponding jar is left empty. Limit fluid intake during the test - no more than 800-1000 ml per day.
Urinalysis in orthostatic test (protein and red blood cells in urine before and after orthostatic load)
Immediately after waking up and before getting out of bed, the entire portion of urine is collected in jar No. 1. Then get up and perform orthostatic loads for 2 hours: walk continuously with a gymnastic stick or hands behind your back in the lumbar deflection area, quickly go up and down the stairs, do several jumps, etc. After 2 hours, collect a second urine sample (jar No. 2).
Daily urine tests: daily protein, albuminuria test, daily excretion of electrolytes: uric acid, calcium, phosphorus, oxalates, potassium, sodium
Daily urine analysis scheme: On the eve of the test, the first morning portion of urine is poured into the toilet, and the time is noted (for example, 7:00). Starting with the next portion, all urine is collected within 24 hours in a container (jar) with a tight-fitting lid. The container can be stored at room temperature. The last time you need to collect urine is exactly 24 hours after the start of the test (in this example, at 7:00 the next day).
After completing the test, use a beaker to measure the resulting volume (with an accuracy of 10-50 ml), then mix the urine thoroughly and collect 20-40 ml in a small bottle or test tube, on which write the name and volume of urine collected per day.
Analysis of 24-hour electrolyte excretion is usually combined with biochemical blood test, which must be submitted in the morning after completing the daily urine collection.
Rehberg's test
Going to daily urine, as well as for analysis of daily protein. Don't forget to accurately measure your daily urine volume! In the morning, when the collection of daily urine is completed, it is necessary to donate blood from a vein for creatinine. For the accuracy of the study, the volume of daily urine must be at least 1000 ml, for which you must drink at least 1.5 liters of liquid on the day of the test.
A general, or clinical, urine test is an important laboratory medical test that helps make a more accurate diagnosis for most diseases. It is prescribed for differential diagnosis in cases of suspected diabetes mellitus, for any diseases of the genitourinary system, for viral infections, for all disorders of the endocrine system, for monitoring the dynamics during the treatment of diseases, as well as for preventive examinations.
How to collect and pass a general urine test correctly?
A biological fluid called urine is produced in the human body by the kidneys. Blood plasma is filtered by the glomeruli of the renal capillaries, then water and many components are reabsorbed from it by the proximal tubules and biological fluid is produced by the distal canals of the kidneys.
Based on the results of a urine test, one can judge the condition of the genitourinary organs and the health of the entire body, since the compositions of urine and blood are interrelated.
In order for the analysis results to be adequate, it is important to collect it correctly!
Brief instructions on how to collect a general urine test are as follows:
- Before you start collecting the analysis, you should thoroughly clean the external genitalia.
- You need to stock up on a container for collecting urine - a clean jar.
- During night sleep, a certain amount of biological fluid collects in the bladder. It should be used to pass a general clinical urine test.
- The night before, you should not eat foods that stain your urine, such as beets, and you should also not drink alcoholic beverages.
- You should not take diuretics before taking the test.
- In order for a general urine test to give objective results, it is necessary to collect not only the average, but the entire portion of morning urine.
- Collected urine should be kept cool, avoiding overheating or freezing.
- In order for the analysis results to be accurate, it is necessary to deliver the collected urine to the laboratory for research no longer than 2 hours after collection.
Morning urine for general analysis is collected on an empty stomach! Before taking the test, you should not eat or drink anything, and you also do not need to take medications!
Any medications or food products will affect biochemical indicators, therefore, the analysis indicators will be unreliable.
Clinical general urine analysis is useful information for specialists about the state of the systems and organs of the human body, the level of hormones, enzymes, the presence of toxic substances in the urine, the composition of metabolic products, salts, and water.
Examination of urine for general analysis includes its microscopic examination, recording the chemical and physical parameters of the biological fluid produced by the kidneys.
Typical mistakes that patients make when they want to take a general urine test are as follows:
- In the morning, first urinate and then collect urine for analysis.
- Do not pre-wash the external genital area.
- Take a contaminated container for urine.
- Collect less than 50 ml of morning urine.
- Before this, drink water, medicines, alcohol, and eat foods that stain urine.
- Long-term storage of contents in a container before delivery to the laboratory.
- The analysis is taken not in the morning, immediately after waking up, but during the day.
- Postponement on the eve of the test due to sports or emotional overload.
- Being in too hot or too cold conditions before collecting urine.
All indicators of a general urine test - what each indicator means
Clinical urine analysis contains many different indicators. All of them can be divided into three main groups:
- Indicators of the physical properties of biological fluid secreted by the kidneys.
- The presence of organic substances in the urine.
- Urine sediment.
- Physical properties of urine
The physical properties of urine include its color, odor, clarity, density and acidity.
Urine clarity and color are determined by laboratory assistants by eye, the relative density is measured using a test strip or a urometer.
To determine acidity urinary environment, a test in the form of a special strip is also used.
What does urine smell like? - determined by a simple sniffing method.
Each indicator is considered in comparison with the standard norm. So, normally, urine should be yellow in color, regardless of color saturation and its shades. It can be amber yellow or light yellow or deep yellow.
The color of urine is affected by its density. The higher the density, the more saturated the yellow color of the biological fluid. Urine acquires an atypical color under the influence of certain foods or medications.
Medicines can change the color of urine to green, brown, red, or even black. In particular, medications containing iron, as well as amidopyrine and antipyrine, turn the color of urine into shades of pink or brown. And methylene blue introduced into the body by any means turns into shades of blue.
Different foods cause different colors in human urine. Rhubarb and bay leaves in large quantities can turn urine brown or green. Beets and carrots make it brown or red. These changes are not pathological, but are considered normal.
The smell of normal urine is not strong, although it is very specific. When a container of urine is left open in the air, an oxidation process occurs and ammonia vapor is formed. The smell of urine becomes pungent. Many scented products or those containing essential oils affect the change in smell. Among them are asparagus, radish, garlic and onions. Valerian and horseradish also add a pungent odor to urine. All this corresponds to the norm, but makes it difficult to process analyses.
Transparency without any turbidity is inherent in fresh urine from a healthy body. The longer the biological kidney fluid sits, the more turbidity appears in it. This is due to the content of various salts in the urine and is normal.
The relative density of urine is used to judge the concentration characteristics of the kidneys. This is a very important indicator that can change physiologically in the presence of vomiting or diarrhea, accompanied by dehydration. Vegetable and fruit diets reduce the density of urine, and consumption of meat in large quantities increases.
Clinical general urine analysis for newly born children normally has a low relative density at first.
The normal density of urine also varies depending on the seasons. In winter it is lower, in summer it increases. Higher urine density is normal in men, while in women and children it is lower.
The relative density standard for a healthy person ranges from 1003 to 1028 units.
The acidity of urine is indicated by the letters pH and is normally equal to seven, that is is neutral. Neutral acidity of urine is characteristic of a mixed nutritious diet, when the food contains both meat and vegetables, as well as baked goods. Normal acidity for children and adults can range from 5-7 units, which corresponds to a slightly acidic environment. Infants who are still fed milk can have both a neutral and an alkaline urinary environment.
More than seven units of urine acidity are increased by black bread, alkaline mineral waters, soda, and the saturation of food with vegetables. Keeping dishes with urine in the open air for a long time also shifts the reaction of the urinary environment towards the alkaline side. The urinary environment is more strongly oxidized from white bread and a large amount of fat in food, from excess in the diet of foods high in protein, from heavy physical exertion and fasting.
- Organic substances in urine
A general urine test also involves identifying, using test strips and modern laboratory equipment, the presence of organic substances in its contents. The equipment used is automatic analyzers that allow you to immediately find out in what concentration the following substances are present in a biological fluid:
- Bilirubin.
- Protein.
- Ketone bodies.
- Glucose.
- Bile pigments (acids).
- Indican.
- Urobilinogen.
Test strips do not show concentration. Thanks to them, you can only find out the presence or absence of organic matter in the urine. If the test strip reacts positively to a substance, further testing allows you to determine the percentage of its content.
Of the ingredients listed above, only protein and urobilinogen should be present in normal healthy urine. Moreover, normally the concentration of urobilinogen is within 6-10 µmol per day, and the protein concentration should not exceed 0.03 grams.
The appearance of high protein in the urine can be caused by bacteria, white blood cells and red blood cells, as well as sperm. Strengthening the degree of protein concentration is also influenced by strong, on the threshold of stress, emotions, physical activity and sudden temperature changes, at which the human body is either overcooled or overheated.
- Urinary sediment - elements of urinary sediment
Urine sediment is examined last when processing a urine test. To make it easier to obtain, the remainder of the biological kidney fluid is passed through a centrifuge. Then, under a microscope, the resulting contents of the sediment are examined and find out whether there are:
- Epithelium.
- Slime.
- Particles of bacterial origin.
- Salt crystals.
- Leukocytes.
- Red blood cells.
- Cylinders.
The epithelium in the urinary sediment may contain flat (from the urinary
canal), renal and transitional (from the kidneys, bladder and ureters). Normally, the renal epithelium should be absent. And in a healthy analysis, no more than three squamous and transitional epithelial cells are observed in both men and women. If basic hygiene rules were not followed during the collection of the analysis, the number of flat epithelial cells increases. The detection of renal epithelium in the analysis indicates kidney disease.
The same applies to mucus. Normally, it is absent in the general analysis. If mucus is found in the urine, you need to look for pathology of the genitourinary organs.
Healthy women and men also do not have bacteria in their urine. The appearance of particles of bacterial origin in a clinical analysis of biological fluid indicates the presence of an inflammatory infectious process in the body.
Salt crystals should normally be present in the urine. Their quantity depends on a person’s diet and how much clean drinking water he drinks per day.
Salts precipitated into normal urinary sediment are urates, oxalates and triple phosphates.
Leukocytes should also be present in normal urine. In healthy men, they are normally from 0 to 3 in one field of view, in healthy women there are slightly more – from 0 to 5. An increase in the number of leukocytes above normal indicates a current disease in the body.
Red blood cells
in the urine analysis of healthy people, on the contrary, should be absent. Single red blood cells detected in several fields of view are maximum acceptable. The appearance of red blood cells in the urine can be both pathological and physiological in nature. Physiological causes include taking certain medications, standing still for long periods of time, walking for long periods of time, and excessive physical activity. When physiological causes are excluded, pathological factors are an alarming signal of internal organ disease.
Cylinders In a normal clinical urine test, only hyaline can be found. Their appearance is influenced by intense sports training or heavy physical work, dousing with cold water, working in hot workshops or being in hot conditions. All other types of casts should not be present in healthy urine.
These include cylinders:
- Erythrocyte.
- Leukocyte.
- Epithelial.
- Waxy.
- Grainy.
All of the above data correspond to a general urine test in healthy adults. Clinical general urine analysis in children differs somewhat in indications.
Interpretation of general urine analysis indicators - table of norms for adults and children
In the results of a clinical urine test, specialists put down certain symbols, each of which indicates one of the main indicators. Regulatory designations are written next to them, then the values of this particular analysis, individual for each person, are indicated.
Adults is a familiar, but very informative study. This analysis is carried out not only if a pathology of the genitourinary organs is suspected, but also as part of a preventive examination or general therapeutic examination. Indeed, a urine test provides the doctor with universal information about the state of the human body and allows one to determine the existing disease.
General urine test in adults: how to do it correctly?
The reliability of the research results depends on how well the rules for urine collection are followed. The urine sample should not be allowed to become contaminated with foreign elements. Therefore, before collecting urine, you need to take a hygienic shower and wipe yourself dry.
What you need to collect is the morning urine that has accumulated in the bladder throughout the night. To collect the material, you need to use sterile containers; you can buy a plastic container at the pharmacy. The first portion of urine is immediately flushed into the toilet, then you need to bring a container to the perineum and fill it with urine. It is important to ensure that the dishes do not come into contact with the skin, this will prevent bacteria from entering the skin. Next, the container is closed with a lid, and you should write your name on the jar. Urine can be stored for no more than two hours, and therefore you should not delay your visit to the laboratory.
The properties of urine are influenced by various aspects, in particular the consumption of food and drinks, medications, and intense physical activity. To ensure that the research results are not distorted, the following rules must be followed:
- The day before the test, exclude coloring foods from the diet (brightly colored juices and drinks, beets, carrots, etc.);
- Avoid drinking alcohol the day before;
- A few days before the tests, stop using diuretics, vitamins and dietary supplements;
- Avoid intense sports;
- It is not advisable to take the test during menstruation and after cystoscopy;
- It is necessary to inform your doctor about the medications you are taking.
General urine test in adults - norm and interpretation
After the examination, the laboratory assistant enters the finished results into a form, which is then given to the patient. What values of a general urine test in adults are considered normal?
Index | Normal value |
Color | Yellow and its shades |
View | Transparent |
Smell | Unsharp |
Density | Within 1.010-1.025 |
ph | Within 5.0-7.0 |
0-0.08 g/l | |
Glucose | Not detected |
Ketone bodies | Not detected |
Bilirubin | Not detected |
Urobilinogen | Not detected (there may be traces) |
Hemoglobin | Not detected |
Bacteria | Not detected |
Red blood cells | 0-2 in sight |
Leukocytes | 0-2 in p.z. |
Epithelial cells | 0-5 in p.z. |
Cylinders | Not detected |
Crystals (synonym – salts) | Not detected |
If any of the indicators does not correspond to normal values, it means that not everything is in order with the body and the attending physician will have to figure out the causes of this condition.
Changes in urine parameters
Urine is nothing more than the end product of the kidneys. Urine contains water, as well as various substances, such as metabolic products, electrolytes, trace elements, epithelial cells, salts, etc. Studying the content of all these substances allows us to assess the function of the urinary organs and the condition of the body as a whole. What does the excess of certain values in urine indicate?
Changes in organoleptic and physicochemical parameters
Organoleptic indicators include the color of urine, its odor and transparency. These are indicators that can be assessed without the use of any special techniques. A healthy person's urine is clear. This parameter worsens significantly when mucus, pus or salt crystals appear in the urine. When urine becomes cloudy, this is usually a sign of an inflammatory process in the urinary organs.
A urine sample is considered normal if the urine is yellow in color. If the urine acquires a rich orange-brown hue, this indicates bilirubinemia, which occurs in liver pathology. The reddish tint of urine is due to the admixture of red blood cells, which is observed with and even cancer of the urinary organs. The grayish-white color of the sample will allow the doctor to suspect a purulent-inflammatory process in the body.
Smell can also tell a lot. Normally, a characteristic, but at the same time faint, smell of urine is detected. If it is caught from urine, this is a sign of inflammation in the urinary organs. When a sample smells like strong acetone, you should be suspicious.
Physicochemical indicators of urine include density and acidity, the determination of which will also provide useful information. Thus, a decrease in urine density is observed mainly with renal failure, and an increase - with
Urine normally has an acidic environment, which prevents the growth of bacteria in the urinary tract. An increase in pH is observed with urinary tract infections, as well as with severe vomiting. A decrease in pH occurs during feverish conditions, intoxication and diabetes. It is worth noting that the ph level is also affected by the nature of the diet.
Changes in biochemical parameters
Using a biochemical study, laboratory assistants determine the content of protein, glucose, ketone bodies, bilirubin, and hemoglobin in a urine sample. Fine protein in urine either not detected at all, or detected slightly - up to 0.08 g/l. By studying this parameter, we can draw a conclusion about how the kidneys work. Increased protein in the urine is a classic sign of kidney disease, in particular glomerulonephritis. Protein is also determined during inflammation in the urinary tract and various infectious diseases.
Glucose in urine there should not be, only the identification of its traces is allowed. It is well known that glucose appears in the urine only when the blood sugar level rises significantly. And the detection of this component in the urine is a characteristic sign of diabetes mellitus. By the way, it confirms the presence of diabetes and the detection of ketone bodies.
Urine contains small amounts , which is often not even detected in the laboratory. When the concentration of conjugated bilirubin in the blood increases, then this substance is also found in the urine. Bilirubin in the urine can be safely regarded as a sign of liver or gallbladder damage.
Changes in microscopic parameters
Promotion leukocytes in urine- this is a sure sign of inflammation in the urinary organs. Similar changes are observed with urethrocystitis. When there are a lot of leukocytes, pus in the sample is detected even visually without the use of equipment - the urine becomes cloudy and acquires a whitish-gray tint. As a rule, during inflammatory processes, mucus also appears. Indisputable confirmation of inflammation in the urinary organs is the identification of bacteria in the urine.
Small presence epithelium in the urinary residue is considered to be a variant of the norm. An increase in epithelium is observed in inflammatory diseases of the genitourinary system. And the appearance of cylindrical cells is observed in various kidney diseases and nephrotic syndrome.
Various types of urine tests are included as mandatory. Hippocrates also said that when examining a patient, you need to pay attention to what the urine looks like, how different this patient’s urine is from that of a healthy person.
Such an analysis can be useful not only for kidney diseases. It may indicate pathologies in various organs of the human body.
If a general clinical examination of a biological fluid is carried out, it is intended to determine the chemical and physical properties of this biological fluid. It is performed in a special laboratory, and the study is comprehensive. The result of the study can be an accurate diagnosis of the patient’s disease.
Indications for the study
It is usually prescribed if there are appropriate indications:
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Physicochemical properties of urine
When an analysis is performed, several different parameters of this biological fluid are considered. Here is an approximate list of such parameters and characteristics of urine that indicate that a person is not sick:
- The color of healthy urine is yellow, but it should have a straw-yellow tint and be transparent.
- The smell is difficult to describe, but it is recognizable and has a specific character.
- The specific gravity of urine is slightly greater than that of water. It ranges from 1005 to 1028 g/l.
- The reaction of the medium should be in the range from 5.0 to 7.0.
- Certain substances should not be present in a healthy biofluid. We are talking about total protein, bilirubin, glucose, ketones and bile acids.
- There should be no red blood cells in the urine.
- There are no more than 6 leukocytes in the field of view.
- Mucus may also occur, but such cases should be isolated.
- Salt crystals or cylinders, as well as bacteria, should not be found in the biofluid.
If the diagnostic characteristics are exactly these, then we are talking about a healthy organism. If we are talking about those who are sick, regularly taking such a test and diagnosing the results will help control the condition of the body.
Available for sale in pharmacies. They can provide preliminary, approximate information about the composition of the biofluid. To perform the test, the provided strip is placed in a liquid and it changes color depending on the composition. A color chart is included to help you interpret the resulting color.
Microscopy of urine sediment
One of the most productive ways of working is to study urinary sediment under a microscope. In this case, there is a visual identification of the various forms that may be present there.
Usually, to conduct such a study, it is enough for the urine to stand for two hours. As a result, a sediment will be deposited that can be studied.
Usually the drug is taken with a pipette, then processed in a centrifuge, then the sediment is studied. Pay attention to the presence of red blood cells, leukocytes, hemoglobin, casts or epithelial cells.
Often this type of research requires additional clarification and is actually the first stage of the study.
What tests are there?
To study the state of the body, various types of diagnostics are prescribed.
According to Nechiporenko
On the day when the collection takes place, it is advisable to avoid stressful situations and overexertion. It is not recommended to eat buckwheat, beets, oranges or grapefruits at this time.
The presence of sugar indicates that the patient is sick. A healthy person does not have it in their urine.
- leukocintar;
- epithelial;
- granular;
- waxy;
- erythrocyte;
- Hyacid.
Their presence can indicate many different diseases.
Three-glass sample
In this case, the study is carried out on a biofluid that was isolated during one time. For study, it is divided into three portions, which are filled by the patient sequentially. The material is collected in the morning; before this, the genitals must be thoroughly washed.
The purpose of this diagnostic method is to determine which organs of the genitourinary system are most susceptible to inflammation.
- If red blood cells were detected in the biomaterial, as well as if there were too many white blood cells.
- Using the Nechiporenko method analysis, the results were obtained. Which need further clarification.
- If an infectious process has been identified that occurs in the organs of the genitourinary system.
How is the analysis done? As you know, urine in a healthy patient is straw-yellow in color. Its composition is characterized by the fact that the liquid contains no red blood cells, as well as bacteria or protein. The number of leukocytes during observation is no more than four. Epithelial cells may be present in isolated cases.
A separate study of each of the three samples is carried out. A violation of the norm may be identified in some of them or in all three. The results are interpreted as follows:
- When the first, earliest portion has a deviation from the norm, this means that the inflammatory process occurs in the urethra. The deviation in composition occurs because it affects the walls of the canal and minor hemorrhages occur there.
- If abnormalities occur in the third sample, inflammation occurs in the bladder or prostate.
- It is also possible that there are deviations in all three samples. In this case, you need to pay attention to the kidneys or ureter.
Bacteriological research
It is interesting to note that urine in a normal situation is completely biologically sterile. However, this only applies to healthy people. Some diseases may cause bacteria to appear in the urine. This applies primarily to the urethral canals. If there is inflammation. Then urine washes away bacteria from their walls, which can be detected using this analysis. During the process, the following actions are performed:
- The degree of sterility of urine is assessed.
- If microbes are detected, the type to which they belong is determined.
- The degree to which urine is saturated with microorganisms.
- The sensitivity of pathogenic microorganisms to the action of various antibacterial drugs is studied.
Ten milligrams of morning biofluid is enough for analysis. To take this sample, you must first thoroughly wash your genitals.
During the examination, the following is performed. Based on its results, the degree of presence of bacteria is assessed:
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Other urine testing methods
Additionally, other urine samples may be prescribed to clarify the diagnosis.
Amburger method
Biomaterial for such a study should be taken on the condition that the patient drank little liquid during the day and did not drink at all at night. After the first urination, the patient collects urine every three hours.
The test is taken to determine the presence of various formed elements in urine.
Method according to Kakovsky-Addis
Not very common in recent years. It is used to study the presence and quantity of formed elements in the patient’s urine.
Before collecting urine, the patient eats a protein diet and limits fluid intake.
The first morning urination is missed. Then urine is collected during the day. At the same time, 4-5 drops of Formalin are added to it. The material must be stored in a refrigerator.
Sulkowicz test
This test determines the calcium content in the urine. It is known that this microelement is vital for the body. Insufficient levels of it may indicate a health problem.
The morning urine sample is used for the study. It is mixed with a special substance. As a result, a chemical reaction occurs. One of its results is cloudiness of the liquid. Based on its characteristics, the following conclusion is drawn:
- No cloudiness. This indicates a lack of vitamin D and dysfunction of the parathyroid glands.
- Minor degree indicates that the patient has a normal reaction of a healthy person.
- Too high degree cloudiness indicates excessive vitamin D levels and too high activity of the parathyroid glands.
Rerberg test
In this case, a parallel study of the composition of the patient’s urine and venous blood occurs. This is necessary to determine. This type of analysis is usually used in cases where we are talking about:
- renal failure;
- “shrinked kidney” syndrome.
The doctor thus studies reabsorption and excretion. The first of them characterizes the reabsorption of certain substances into the blood or lymph.
Daily biochemical analysis
In this case, all the urine that the patient’s body excreted during the day is studied. To achieve this, it is usually believed that the fluid intake regime should be the same as always. Urine is collected from seven in the morning one day until seven in the morning the next.
The subject of the study is to study the content of the following substances in urine provided for analysis:
- creatinine;
- glucose;
- protein;
- urea;
- calcium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium in the form of electrolytes.
Urine tests in children
Urinalysis can be used to diagnose and treat children. For example, it can help diagnose the presence of rickets in a child. Nowadays biochemical analysis is most often used. When considering it, it must be taken into account that the characteristics of the organisms of adults and children may have significant differences.
Conclusion
Urinalysis is one of the most common diagnostic methods. If there are suspicions about the presence of certain diseases, this analysis can help provide an accurate and reliable analysis.